Butter from Different Species: Composition and Quality Parameters of Products Commercialized in the South of Spain.

Butter is an important product for the dairy industry due to its particular sensory attributes and nutritional value, while the variability of the composition of the fatty acids in the milk can alter the nutritional and physical properties of butter and its acceptance by consumers. Butter is highly appreciated for its distinctive flavor and aroma; however, one of its main drawbacks lies in the difficulty in spreading it at low temperatures. Several types of butter that are present in the market were used in this study. We assessed the variability in the composition of the samples regarding their texture, color properties, and volatile organic compound profiles. We analyzed samples commercially produced from sheep's milk (SB), goat's milk (GB), and cow's milk (CB); samples from the latter species with (CSB) and without salt (CB); and the low-fat (CLB) version. All the physicochemical composition parameters were significantly affected by the effect of the type of butter, although only 29 out of the 45 fatty acids examined were identified in the butter samples analyzed. The textural properties of the butters were influenced by both their solid fat content and the fatty acid profile. In addition, the origin of the milk not only affected the texture parameters but also the color of the butters and the compounds associated with traits such as odor and flavor. Through the multivariate data analysis of butter fatty acids and volatile compound percentages, we observed a clear differentiation of the samples based on the species of origin.

Using Vis-NIR Spectroscopy for Predicting Quality Compounds in Foods.

Over the past four decades, near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) has become one of the most attractive and used technique for analysis as it allows for fast and simultaneous qualitative and quantitative characterization of a wide variety of food samples [...].

In Vivo and In Vitro Assays Evaluating the Biological Activity of Taurine, Glucose and Energetic Beverages.

Taurine is one of the main ingredients used in energy drinks which are highly consumed in adolescents for their sugary taste and stimulating effect. With energy drinks becoming a worldwide phenomenon, the biological effects of these beverages must be evaluated in order to fully comprehend the potential impact of these products on the health due to the fact nutrition is closely related to science since the population consumes food to prevent certain diseases. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the biological effects of taurine, glucose, classic Red Bull® and sugar-free Red Bull® in order to check the food safety and the nutraceutical potential of these compounds, characterising different endpoints: (i) Toxicology, antitoxicology, genotoxicology and life expectancy assays were performed in the Drosophila melanogaster model organism; (ii) The in vitro chemopreventive activity of testing compounds was determined by assessing their cytotoxicity, the proapoptotic DNA-damage capability to induce internucleosomal fragmentation, the strand breaks activity and the modulator role on the methylation status of genomic repetitive sequences of HL-60 promyelocytic cells. Whereas none tested compounds showed toxic or genotoxic effect, all tested compounds exerted antitoxic and antigenotoxic activity in Drosophila. Glucose, classic Red Bull® and sugar-free Red Bull® were cytotoxic in HL-60 cell line. Classic Red Bull® induced DNA internucleosomal fragmentation although none of them exhibited DNA damage on human leukaemia cells. In conclusion, the tested compounds are safe on Drosophila melanogaster and classic Red Bull® could overall possess nutraceutical potential in the in vivo and in vitro model used in this study. Besides, taurine could holistically be one of the bioactive compounds responsible for the biological activity of classic Red Bull®.

The Health Benefits of Fruits and Vegetables.

We edited this Special Issue with the objective of bringing forth new data on the phytochemicals from vegetables and fruits, which are recommended for their health-promoting properties. Epidemiological, toxicological and nutritional studies suggested an association between fruit and vegetable consumption and lower incidence of chronic diseases, such as coronary heart problems, cancer, diabetes, and Alzheimer's disease. In this Special Issue, the protective roles (antioxidant and others bioactivities), new sustainable approaches to determine the quality, and the processing techniques that can modify the initial nutritional and antioxidant content of fruits, vegetables and additives have been addressed.

Food Safety and Nutraceutical Potential of Caramel Colour Class IV Using In Vivo and In Vitro Assays.

Nutraceutical activity of food is analysed to promote the healthy characteristics of diet where additives are highly used. Caramel is one of the most worldwide consumed additives and it is produced by heating natural carbohydrates. The aim of this study was to evaluate the food safety and the possible nutraceutical potential of caramel colour class IV (CAR). For this purpose, in vivo toxicity/antitoxicity, genotoxicity/antigenotoxicity and longevity assays were performed using the Drosophila melanogaster model. In addition, cytotoxicity, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, single cell gel electrophoresis and methylation status assays were conducted in the in vitro HL-60 human leukaemia cell line. Our results reported that CAR was neither toxic nor genotoxic and showed antigenotoxic effects in Drosophila. Furthermore, CAR induced cytotoxicity and hipomethylated sat-α repetitive element using HL-60 cell line. In conclusion, the food safety of CAR was demonstrated, since Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) was not reached in toxicity assay and any of the tested concentrations induced mutation rates higher than that of the concurrent control in D. melanogaster. On the other hand, CAR protected DNA from oxidative stress provided by hydrogen peroxide in Drosophila. Moreover, CAR showed chemopreventive activity and modified the methylation status of HL-60 cell line. Nevertheless, much more information about the mechanisms of gene therapies related to epigenetic modulation by food is necessary.

Toxicological Studies of Czech Beers and Their Constituents.

BACKGROUND: Czech beers are unique because they are brewed using specific technology at a particular latitude and for being entirely produced in the area of the Czech Republic. The purpose of this work is the evaluation of toxicological effects of a variety of freeze-dried Czech beers, their raw materials (malts, hops and yeast) and processed-beer (wort, hopped wort and young beer). METHODS: In vivo assays to evaluate the safety and protective effects in the Drosophila melanogaster eukaryotic system, and the in vitro evaluations of chemopreventive and DNA damage activity using the HL-60 tumour human cell line were carried out. RESULTS: The safe effects for all the analysed substances and general protective effects against H2O2 were shown both at the individual and genomic level in the Drosophila animal model, with some exceptions. Moreover, all the substances were able to inhibit the tumour cell growth and to induce DNA damage in the HL-60 cells at different levels (proapoptotic, single/double strands breaks and methylation status). CONCLUSIONS: The promising effects shown by freeze-dried Czech beers due to their safety, protection against a toxin, chemopreventive potential and the induction of DNA damage in tumour cells, allow the proposition of Czech beer as a beverage with nutraceutic potential.

Seed Oil Quality of Brassica napus and Brassica rapa Germplasm from Northwestern Spain.

The seed oil content and the fatty acid composition of a germplasm collection of Brassica napus and Brassica rapa currently grown in Galicia (northwestern Spain) were evaluated in order to identify potentially interesting genotypes and to assess their suitability as oilseed crops for either edible or industrial purposes. The seeds of the B. rapa landraces had higher oil content (mean 47.3%) than those of B. napus (mean 42.8%). The landraces of both species showed a similar fatty acid profile (12% oleic acid, 13% linoleic acid, 8-9% linolenic acid, 8-9% eicosenoic acid, and 50-51% erucic acid). They were very high in erucic acid content, which is nutritionally undesirable in a vegetable oil, and very low in oleic and linoleic acid contents. Therefore, they could be used for industrial purposes but not as edible oil. The erucic acid content ranged from 42% to 54% of the total fatty acid composition with an average value of 50% in the B. napus landraces whereas in B. rapa, it ranged from 43% to 57%, with an average value of 51%. Considering the seed oil and the erucic acid content together, three varieties within the B. napus collection and two varieties within the B. rapa one seem to be the most promising genotypes for industrial purposes.

Physicochemical Characterization and Biological Activities of Black and White Garlic: In Vivo and In Vitro Assays.

White and three types of black garlic (13, 32, and 45 days of aging, named 0C1, 1C2, and 2C1, respectively) were selected to study possible differences in their nutraceutic potential. For this purpose, garlic were physicochemically characterized (Brix, pH, aW, L, polyphenol, and antioxidant capacity), and both in vivo and in vitro assays were carried out. Black garlic samples showed higher polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity than the white ones. The biological assays showed that none of the samples (neither raw nor black garlic) produced toxic effects in the Drosophila melanogaster animal genetic model, nor exerted protective effects against H2O2, with the exception of the 0C1 black garlic. Moreover, only white garlic was genotoxic at the highest concentration. On the other hand, 0C1 black garlic was the most antigenotoxic substance. The in vivo longevity assays showed significant extension of lifespan at some concentrations of white and 0C1and 1C2 black garlic. The in vitro experiments showed that all of the garlic samples induced a decrease in leukemia cell growth. However, no type of garlic was able to induce proapoptotic internucleosomal DNA fragmentation. Taking into account the physicochemical and biological data, black garlic could be considered a potential functional food and used in the preventive treatment of age-related diseases. In addition, our findings could be relevant for black-garlic-processing agrifood companies, as the economical and timing costs can significantly be shortened from 45 to 13 days of aging.

Nutraceutic Potential of Two Allium Species and Their Distinctive Organosulfur Compounds: A Multi-Assay Evaluation.

This study aimed to evaluate the biological activities of two Allium species (garlic and onion) as well as diallyl disulphide (DADS) and dipropyl disulphide (DPDS) as their representative bioactive compounds in a multi-assay experimental design. The genotoxic, antigenotoxic, and lifespan effects of garlic, onion, DADS, and DPDS were checked in Drosophila melanogaster and their cytotoxic, pro-apoptotic, and DNA-clastogenic activities were analyzed using HL60 tumoral cells. All compounds were non-genotoxic and antigenotoxic against H2O2-induced DNA damage with a positive dose-response effect and different inhibition percentages (the highest value: 95% for DADS) at all tested concentrations. Daily intake of Allium vegetables, DADS, or DPDS had no positive effects on flies' lifespan and health span. Garlic and DADS exerted the highest cytotoxic effects in a positive dose-dependent manner. Garlic and DADS exerted a DNA-internucleosomal fragmentation as an index of induced proapoptotic activity on HL60 cells. Allium vegetables and DADS were able to induce clastogenic strand breaks in the DNA of HL60 cells. This study showed the genomic safety of the assayed substances and their protective genetic effects against the hydrogen peroxide genotoxine. Long-term treatments during the whole life of the Drosophila genetic model were beneficial only at low-median concentrations. The chemo-preventive activity of garlic could be associated with its distinctive organosulfur DADS. We suggest that supplementary studies are needed to clarify the cell death pathway against garlic and DADS.

First RNA-seq approach to study fruit set and parthenocarpy in zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.).

BACKGROUND: Zucchini fruit set can be limited due to unfavourable environmental conditions in off-seasons crops that caused ineffective pollination/fertilization. Parthenocarpy, the natural or artificial fruit development without fertilization, has been recognized as an important trait to avoid this problem, and is related to auxin signalling. Nevertheless, differences found in transcriptome analysis during early fruit development of zucchini suggest that other complementary pathways could regulate fruit formation in parthenocarpic cultivars of this species. The development of next-generation sequencing technologies (NGS) as RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) opens a new horizon for mapping and quantifying transcriptome to understand the molecular basis of pathways that could regulate parthenocarpy in this species. The aim of the current study was to analyze fruit transcriptome of two cultivars of zucchini, a non-parthenocarpic cultivar and a parthenocarpic cultivar, in an attempt to identify key genes involved in parthenocarpy. RESULTS: RNA-seq analysis of six libraries (unpollinated, pollinated and auxin treated fruit in a non-parthenocarpic and parthenocarpic cultivar) was performed mapping to a new version of C. pepo transcriptome, with a mean of 92% success rate of mapping. In the non-parthenocarpic cultivar, 6479 and 2186 genes were differentially expressed (DEGs) in pollinated fruit and auxin treated fruit, respectively. In the parthenocarpic cultivar, 10,497 in pollinated fruit and 5718 in auxin treated fruit. A comparison between transcriptome of the unpollinated fruit for each cultivar has been performed determining that 6120 genes were differentially expressed. Annotation analysis of these DEGs revealed that cell cycle, regulation of transcription, carbohydrate metabolism and coordination between auxin, ethylene and gibberellin were enriched biological processes during pollinated and parthenocarpic fruit set. CONCLUSION: This analysis revealed the important role of hormones during fruit set, establishing the activating role of auxins and gibberellins against the inhibitory role of ethylene and different candidate genes that could be useful as markers for parthenocarpic selection in the current breeding programs of zucchini.

Prediction of Agro-Morphological and Nutritional Traits in Ethiopian Mustard Leaves (Brassica Carinata A. Braun) by Visible-Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

The particular characteristics of some of the Ethiopian mustard accessions available from seed banks could be used to increase the production and the diversity of products available to consumers and to improve their general quality. The objectives of this study were to determine the genetic variability for agro-morphological (days to first flowering: DFF and leaf pubescence: LP) and nutritional traits (total phenolic content: TPC) among accessions, and to evaluate the potential of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to predict these traits in Ethiopian mustard leaves. A great variation was found for the traits evaluated. The reference values were regressed against different spectral transformations by modified partial least-squares (MPLS) regression. The coefficients of determination in cross-validation (R²cv) shown by the equations for DFF, LP and TPC were 0.95, 0.63 and 0.99, respectively. The standard deviation to standard error of cross-validation ratio (RPD), were for these traits, as follows: DFF: 4.52, LP: 1.53 and, TPC: 24.50. These results show that the equations developed for DFF and TPC in Ethiopian mustard, can be predicted with sufficient accuracy for screening purposes and quality control, respectively. In addition, the LP equation can be used to identify those samples with "low", "medium" and "high" groups. From the study of the mean and deviation standard spectra, and regression vectors of MPLS models it can be concluded that some major cell components, highly participated in modelling the equations for these traits.

Quantification of Total Phenolic and Carotenoid Content in Blackberries (Rubus Fructicosus L.) Using Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) and Multivariate Analysis.

A rapid method to quantify the total phenolic content (TPC) and total carotenoid content (TCC) in blackberries using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was carried out aiming to provide reductions in analysis time and cost for the food industry. A total of 106 samples were analysed using the Folin-Ciocalteu method for TPC and a method based on Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrometer for TCC. The average contents found for TPC and TCC were 24.27 mg·g-1 dw and 8.30 µg·g-1 dw, respectively. Modified partial least squares (MPLS) regression was used for obtaining the calibration models of these compounds. The RPD (ratio of the standard deviation of the reference data to the standard error of prediction (SEP)) values from external validation for both TPC and TCC were between 1.5 < RPDp < 2.5 and RER values (ratio of the range in the reference data to SEP) were 5.92 for TPC and 8.63 for TCC. These values showed that both equations were suitable for screening purposes. MPLS loading plots showed a high contribution of sugars, chlorophyll, lipids and cellulose in the modelling of prediction equations.

Characterisation and prediction of carbohydrate content in zucchini fruit using near infrared spectroscopy.

BACKGROUND: Zucchini fruit plays an important part in healthy nutrition due to its high content of carbohydrates. Recent studies have demonstrated the feasibility of visible-NIRS to predict quality profile. However, this procedure has not been applied to determine carbohydrates. RESULTS: Visible-NIR and wet chemical methods were used to determine individual sugars and starch in zucchini fruits. By applying a principal component analysis (PCA) with NIR spectral data a differentiation between the less sweet versus the sweetest zucchini accessions could be found. For the determination of carbohydrate content effective prediction models for individual sugars such as glucose, fructose, sucrose and starch by using partial least squares (PLS) regression have been developed. CONCLUSION: The coefficients of determination in the external validation (R2 VAL) ranged from 0.66 to 0.85. The standard deviation (SD) to standard error of prediction ratio (RPD) and SD to range (RER) were variable for different quality compounds and showed values that were characteristic of equations suitable for screening purposes. From the study of the MPLS loadings of the first three terms of the different equations for sugars and starch, it can be concluded that some major cell components such as pigments, cellulose, organic acids highly participated in modelling the equations for carbohydrates. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Role of Zucchini and Its Distinctive Components in the Modulation of Degenerative Processes: Genotoxicity, Anti-Genotoxicity, Cytotoxicity and Apoptotic Effects.

Zucchini (Cucurbita pepo subsp. pepo) is a seasonal vegetable with high nutritional and medical values. Many useful properties of this fruit are attributed to bioactive compounds. Zucchini fruits ("Yellow" and "Light Green" varieties) and four distinctive components (lutein, ß-carotene, zeaxanthin and dehydroascorbic acid) were selected. Firstly, the lutein, ß-carotene, zeaxanthin and dehydroascorbic acid contents were determined in these fruits. Then, in order to evaluate the safety and suitability of their use, different assays were carried out: (i) genotoxicity and anti-genotoxicity tests to determine the safety and DNA-protection against hydrogen peroxide; (ii) cytotoxicity; and (iii) DNA fragmentation and Annexin V/PI (Propidium Iodide) assays to evaluate the pro-apoptotic effect. Results showed that: (i) all the substances were non-genotoxic; (ii) all the substances were anti-genotoxic except the highest concentration of lutein; (iii) "Yellow" zucchini epicarp and mesocarp exhibited the highest cytotoxic activity (IC50 > 0.1 mg/mL and 0.2 mg/mL, respectively); and (iv) "Light Green" zucchini skin induced internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, ß-carotene being the possible molecule responsible for its pro-apoptotic activity. To sum up, zucchini fruit could play a positive role in human health and nutrition due to this fruit and its components were safe, able to inhibit significantly the H2O2-induced damage and exhibit anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activities toward HL60 (human promyelocytic leukemia cells) tumor cells. The information generated from this research should be considered when selecting potential accessions for breeding program purposes.

Rapid and Cost-Effective Quantification of Glucosinolates and Total Phenolic Content in Rocket Leaves by Visible/Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

The potential of visible-near infrared spectroscopy to predict glucosinolates and total phenolic content in rocket (Eruca vesicaria) leaves has been evaluated. Accessions of the E. vesicaria species were scanned by NIRS as ground leaf, and their reference values regressed against different spectral transformations by modified partial least squares (MPLS) regression. The coefficients of determination in the external validation (R²VAL) for the different quality components analyzed in rocket ranged from 0.59 to 0.84, which characterize those equations as having from good to excellent quantitative information. These results show that the total glucosinolates, glucosativin and glucoerucin equations obtained, can be used to identify those samples with low and high contents. The glucoraphanin equation obtained can be used for rough predictions of samples and in case of total phenolic content, the equation showed good correlation. The standard deviation (SD) to standard error of prediction ratio (RPD) and SD to range (RER) were variable for the different quality compounds and showed values that were characteristic of equations suitable for screening purposes or to perform accurate analyses. From the study of the MPLS loadings of the first three terms of the different equations, it can be concluded that some major cell components such as protein and cellulose, highly participated in modelling the equations for glucosinolates.

Application of visible/near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy for predicting internal and external quality in pepper.

BACKGROUND: The characterization of internal (°Brix, pH, malic acid, total phenolic compounds, ascorbic acid and total carotenoid content) and external (color, firmness and pericarp wall thickness) pepper quality is necessary to better understand its possible applications and increase consumer awareness of its benefits. The main aim of this work was to examine the feasibility of using visible/near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (VIS-NIRS) to predict quality parameters in different pepper types. Commercially available spectrophotometers were evaluated for this purpose: a Polychromix Phazir spectrometer for intact raw pepper, and a scanning monochromator for freeze-dried pepper. RESULTS: The RPD values (ratio of the standard deviation of the reference data to the standard error of prediction) obtained from the external validation exceeded a value of 3 for chlorophyll a and total carotenoid content; values ranging between 2.5 < RPD < 3 for total phenolic compounds; between 1.5 < RPD <2.5 for °Brix, pH, color parameters a* and h* and chlorophyll b; and RPD values below 1.5 for fruit firmness, pericarp wall thickness, color parameters C*, b* and L*, vitamin C and malic acid content. CONCLUSION: The present work has led to the development of multi-type calibrations for pepper quality parameters in intact and freeze-dried peppers. The majority of NIRS equations obtained were suitable for screening purposes in pepper breeding programs. Components such as pigments (xanthophyll, carotenes and chlorophyll), glucides, lipids, cellulose and water were used by modified partial least-squares regression for modeling the predicting equations. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

First TILLING platform in Cucurbita pepo: a new mutant resource for gene function and crop improvement.

Although the availability of genetic and genomic resources for Cucurbita pepo has increased significantly, functional genomic resources are still limited for this crop. In this direction, we have developed a high throughput reverse genetic tool: the first TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes) resource for this species. Additionally, we have used this resource to demonstrate that the previous EMS mutant population we developed has the highest mutation density compared with other cucurbits mutant populations. The overall mutation density in this first C. pepo TILLING platform was estimated to be 1/133 Kb by screening five additional genes. In total, 58 mutations confirmed by sequencing were identified in the five targeted genes, thirteen of which were predicted to have an impact on the function of the protein. The genotype/phenotype correlation was studied in a peroxidase gene, revealing that the phenotype of seedling homozygous for one of the isolated mutant alleles was albino. These results indicate that the TILLING approach in this species was successful at providing new mutations and can address the major challenge of linking sequence information to biological function and also the identification of novel variation for crop breeding.

Use of visible and near-infrared spectroscopy for predicting antioxidant compounds in summer squash (Cucurbita pepo ssp pepo).

The food industry and plant breeding programmes require fast, clean and low-cost screening techniques for nutritional compounds determination in food matrices. This is the first report on the study of the potential of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for the prediction of antioxidant compounds in summer squash tissues collected since 2009-2012. Modified partial least-squares (MPLS) regression was used to correlate spectral information and the different antioxidant compounds in the samples. The coefficients of determination in the external validation (r(2)ev) obtained were for ascorbic acid (0.77 and 0.86), chlorophyll a (0.79 and 0.66), chlorophyll b (0.86 and 0.79) and total phenolic compounds (0.65 and 0.68) in exocarp and mesocarp tissues, respectively, supporting that NIRS is able to predict in a rapid way these components for screening purposes. Major wavelengths influencing the calibration equations showed that chromophores as well as fibre components of the fruits highly participated in developing the NIR equations.

Determining the mineral composition in Cucurbita pepo fruit using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy.

BACKGROUND: Efforts through conventional breeding to improve the mineral content in horticultural crops have not always been successful mainly due to the fact that standard analytical methods are both costly and time-consuming. We investigated the feasibility of applying near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) to the estimation of essential mineral composition in the skin and flesh of summer squash fruits (Cucurbita pepo subsp. pepo) using a 200-sample set from diverse morphotypes. RESULTS: The coefficients of determination in the external validation (R(2) VAL) obtained for the skin and flesh of the fruit were: total mineral content, 0.84 and 0.70; P, 0.74 and 0.62; K, 0.83 and 0.67; Ca, 0.57 and 0.60; Mg, 0.78 and 0.45; Fe, 0.78 and 0.65; Cu, 0.67 and 0.66; Mn, 0.67 and 0.64; Zn, 0.80 and 0.79 and Na, 0.33 and 0.33; respectively. CONCLUSIONS: NIRS combined with different spectral transformations by modified partial least-squares (MPLS) regression has shown to be useful in determining the mineral composition of summer squash fruit, being a fast and low-cost analytical technique. Components such as chlorophyll, starch and lipids were used by MPLS for modelling the predicting equations. The promotion of micronutrient-rich summer squash varieties could have a significant long-term beneficial impact on the health of mineral deficient human populations.

Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of metal(oid)s bioactivated in rocket leaves (Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa Miller).

Rocket is an important source of essential elements. However, it may also accumulate toxic elements such as metal(oids). The objectives of the present work were (i) to study the uptake of arsenic, lead, cadmium and zinc in rocket grown in contaminated soils, (ii) to establish the genotoxic and cytotoxic activities of this vegetable material, and (iii) to study the modulator role of the glucosinolate and metal contents in the genotoxic/cytotoxic activities. Lead, cadmium and zinc leaf concentrations in our study were over the concentrations allowed by the statutory limit set for metal(oid) contents in vegetables. The accessions were non genotoxic at the different concentrations studied, although one of the accessions showed the highest mutation rates doubling those of negative control. The cytotoxicity assays with HL60 human leukaemia cells showed that the tumouricide activities of rocket leaves decreased with the increasing of metal(oid) concentrations and also with the decreasing of glucosinolate concentrations in their tissues. An interaction between metal(oid)s and glucosinolate degradation products contained in rocket leaves is suggested as the main modulator agents of the biological activity of the plants grown in metal-contaminated soils.